Table 1 Characteristics of participants included in final analysis

Age (year)^a

55.00 [46.00,65.00]

55.00 [46.00,65.00]

54.00 [46.00,63.00] ^*

53.00 [46.00,62.00] ^**

60.00 [47.25,72.75] ^**

Sex/menopause status n, (%)

Men

2066 (46.97%)

1097 (46.27)

547 (49.46)

302 (46.89)

120 (43.17)

Non-postmenopausal women

816 (18.55%)

444 (18.73)

202 (18.26)

114 (17.70)

56 (20.14)

Postmenopausal women

1517 (34.49%)

830 (35.01)

357 (32.28)

228 (35.40)

102 (36.69)

Race n, (%)

Mexican American

711 (16.16%)

399 (16.83)

181 (16.37) ^**

94 (14.60) ^**

37 (13.31)

Other Hispanic

439 (9.98%)

220 (9.28)

121 (10.94) ^**

81 (12.58) ^**

17 (6.12)

Non-Hispanic White

2186 (49.69%)

1290 (54.41)

496 (44.85) ^**

232 (36.02) ^**

168 (60.43)

Non-Hispanic Black

785 (17.84%)

324 (13.67)

223 (20.16) ^**

194 (30.12) ^**

44 (15.83)

Other Race

278 (6.32%)

138 (5.82)

85 (7.69) ^**

43 (6.68) ^**

12 (4.32)

Education level n, (%)

Under high school

1083 (24.62%)

551 (23.24)

252 (22.78)

195 (30.28) ^**

85 (30.58) ^**

High school or equivalent

995 (22.62%)

502 (21.17)

269 (24.32)

157 (24.38) ^**

67 (24.10) ^**

Above high school

2321 (52.76%)

1318 (55.59)

585 (52.89)

292 (45.34) ^**

126 (45.32) ^**

Income level n, (%)

Q1 (PIR: 0.00–1.23)

1082 (24.60%)

533 (22.48)

267 (24.14) ^**

206 (31.99) ^**

76 (27.34) ^**

Q2 (PIR: 1.24–2.47)

1117 (25.39%)

617 (26.02)

249 (22.51) ^**

172 (26.71) ^**

79 (28.42) ^**

Q3 (PIR: 2.48–4.63)

1093 (24.85%)

553 (23.32)

305 (27.58) ^**

161 (25.00) ^**

74 (26.62) ^**

Q4 (PIR: 4.64–5.00)

1107 (25.16%)

668 (28.17)

285 (25.77) ^**

105 (16.30) ^**

49 (17.63) ^**

BMI n, (%)

Normal (BMI < 25 kg/m2)

1220 (27.73%)

691 (29.14)

293 (26.49) ^*

154 (23.91) ^**

82 (29.50)

Overweight (30 > BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2)

1656 (37.64%)

929 (39.18)

409 (36.98) ^*

216 (33.54) ^**

102 (36.69)

Obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2)

1523 (34.62%)

751 (31.67)

404 (36.53) ^*

274 (42.55) ^**

94 (33.81)

Smoking status n, (%)

Currently smoking

795 (18.07%)

375 (15.82)

216 (19.53) ^*

152 (23.60) ^**

52 (18.71)

Ex-smoking

1237 (28.12%)

686 (28.93)

291 (26.31) ^*

178 (27.64) ^**

82 (29.50)

Never smoke

2367 (53.81%)

1310 (55.25)

599 (54.16) ^*

314 (48.76) ^**

144 (51.80)

Alcohol drinking status n, (%)

Currently drinking

2890 (65.70%)

1605 (67.69)

730 (66.00)

399 (61.96) ^**

156 (56.12) ^**

Ex-drinking

924 (21.00%)

453 (19.11)

226 (20.43)

165 (25.62) ^**

80 (28.78) ^**

Never drink

585 (13.30%)

313 (13.20)

150 (13.56)

80 (12.42) ^**

42 (15.11) ^**

Physical activity level n, (%)

NMVPA

(0 MET-mins/week)

1154 (26.23%)

582 (24.55)

288 (26.04)

180 (27.95)

104 (37.41) ^**

LMVPA

(1–599 MET-mins/week)

629 (14.30%)

346 (14.59)

156 (14.10)

88 (13.66)

39 (14.03) ^**

MMVPA

(600–1199 MET-mins/week)

526 (11.96%)

306 (12.91)

119 (10.76)

68 (10.56)

33 (11.87) ^**

HMVPA

(≥ 1200 MET-mins/week)

2090 (47.51%)

1137 (47.95)

543 (49.10)

308 (47.83)

102 (36.69) ^**

Sedentary activity n, (%)

Q1 (0–150 min/day)

786 (17.87%)

396 (16.70)

196 (17.72)

159 (24.69) ^**

35 (12.59)

Q2 (151–240 min/day)

1118 (25.41%)

611 (25.77)

255 (23.06)

175 (27.17) ^**

77 (27.70)

Q3 (241–479 min/day)

1118 (25.41%)

632 (26.66)

284 (25.68)

135 (20.96) ^**

67 (24.10)

Q4 (≥ 480 min/day)

1377 (31.30%)

732 (30.87)

371 (33.54)

175 (27.17) ^**

99 (35.61)

Fracture history n, (%)

No

3921 (89.13%)

2130 (89.84)

991 (89.60)

564 (87.58)

236 (84.89) ^*

Yes

478 (10.87%)

241 (10.16)

115 (10.40)

80 (12.42)

42 (15.11) ^*

Glucocorticoid use n, (%)

Yes

256 (5.82%)

114 (4.81)

71 (6.42)

48 (7.45) ^*

23 (8.27) ^*

No

4143 (94.18%)

2257 (95.19)

1035 (93.58)

596 (92.55) ^*

255 (91.73) ^*

Family history of osteoporosis n, (%)

Yes

625 (14.21%)

333 (14.04)

160 (14.47)

95 (14.75)

37 (13.31)

No

3774 (85.79%)

2038 (85.96)

946 (85.53)

549 (85.25)

241 (86.69)

CCI

G1: CCI = 0

2015 (45.81%)

1142 (48.17)

502 (45.39)

271 (42.08) ^*

100 (35.97) ^**

G2: CCI = 1

1028 (23.37%)

538 (22.69)

260 (23.51)

153 (23.76) ^*

77 (27.70) ^**

G3: CCI > 1

1356 (30.83%)

691 (29.14)

344 (31.10)

220 (34.16) ^*

101 (36.33) ^**

Calcium intake n, (%)

Q1 (39.50–655.50 mg/day)

1100 (25.01%)

547 (23.07)

287 (25.95)

196 (30.43) ^**

70 (25.18)

Q2: (655.51–965.00 mg/day)

1098 (24.96%)

599 (25.26)

262 (23.69)

172 (26.71) ^**

65 (23.38)

Q3: (965.01–1398.00 mg/day)

1101 (25.03%)

584 (24.63)

284 (25.68)

156 (24.22) ^**

77 (27.70)

Q4 (> 1398.00 mg/day)

1100 (25.01%)

641 (27.04)

273 (24.68)

120 (18.63) ^**

66 (23.74)

Caffeine intake n, (%)

Q1 (0.00–39.00 mg/day)

1099 (24.98%)

576 (24.29)

266 (24.05)

173 (26.86)

84 (30.22)

Q2 (39.01–115.00 mg/day)

1098 (24.96%)

602 (25.39)

286 (25.86)

144 (22.36)

66 (23.74)

Q3 (115.01–224.50 mg/day)

1101 (25.03%)

578 (24.38)

290 (26.22)

162 (25.16)

71 (25.54)

Q4 (> 224.50 mg/day)

1101 (25.03%)

615 (25.94)

264 (23.87)

165 (25.62)

57 (20.50)

Vitamin D _(D2+D3) intake (μg/day)^a

6.45 [2.80,15.85]

7.25 [3.00,17.02]

6.18 [2.76,15.24]

4.90 [2.20,11.70] ^**

7.12 [3.30,15.49]

Serum 25(OH)D _{(D2 + D3)} (nmol/L)^a

64.20 [48.00,81.80]

66.10 [50.60,83.70]

63.50 [47.90,81.45] ^**

58.45 [39.70,74.93] ^**

63.85 [47.42,80.68]

TF-BMD (g/cm2)^a

0.95 [0.84,1.05]

0.94 [0.84,1.05]

0.96 [0.85,1.07] ^*

0.96 [0.86,1.07] ^*

0.91 [0.80,1.03] ^**

FN-BMD (g/cm2)^a

0.79 [0.70,0.89]

0.79 [0.70,0.88]

0.80 [0.71,0.90] ^**

0.81 [0.71,0.90] ^**

0.76 [0.66,0.86] ^**

TS-BMD (g/cm2)^a

1.01 [0.91,1.12]

1.01 [0.91,1.11]

1.02 [0.91,1.13]

1.01 [0.90,1.12]

1.00 [0.89,1.10]