Table 1 Socio-demographic, clinical, metabolic, and immunologic characteristics of all study participants, and those with vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency, and normal vitamin D status
Characteristics | All study participants (n = 327) | Vitamin D deficient (n = 105, 32.1%) | Vitamin D insufficient (n = 140, 42.8%) | Normal Vitamin D status (n = 82, 25.1%) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Socio-demographic and clinical | |||||
 Age (years) | 48 (39–58) | 47 (38–56) | 47 (39–59) | 50 (40–57) | 0.13 |
 Sex | |||||
  Males | 150 (46) | 44 (42) | 63 (45) | 43 (52) | 0.34 |
  Females | 177 (54) | 61 (58) | 77 (55) | 39 (48) | |
 Residencea | |||||
  Urban | 234 (72) | 74 (70) | 98 (70) | 62 (76) | 0.42 |
  Rural | 92 (28) | 31 (30) | 42 (30) | 19 (23) | |
 Hypertension comorbidity | 110 (34) | 36 (34) | 42 (30) | 32 (39) | 0.38 |
 HIV co-infection | 39 (12) | 17 (16) | 10 (7) | 12 (15) | 0.07 |
 Glucose-lowering therapy initiatedb | |||||
  Insulin | 90 (28) | 36 (34) | 32 (23) | 22 (27) | 0.14 |
  Sulfonylureas | 130 (40) | 37 (35) | 60 (43) | 33 (40) | 0.48 |
  Metformin | 257 (79) | 76 (72) | 116 (83) | 65 (79) | 0.14 |
 Systolic blood pressure, mmHg | 126 (114–137) | 125 (112–136) | 126 (113–136) | 127 (115–139) | 0.53 |
 Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | 83 (77–90) | 82 (76–90) | 84 (77–90) | 84 (78–92) | 0.23 |
 Waist circumference, cm | 95 (87–104) | 96 (85–102) | 95 (89–105) | 94 (87–104) | 0.66 |
 Hip circumference, cm | 102 (95–111) | 102 (94–110) | 103 (96–111) | 103 (96–112) | 0.49 |
 Body fat level, % | 35 (24–45) | 36 (25–43) | 38 (25–45) | 31 (23–45) | 0.29 |
 Body mass index, kg/m2 | 27 (23–31) | 26 (23–31) | 28 (24–31) | 26 (24–31) | 0.81 |
 Waist: hip circumference ratio | 0.9 (0.9–1.0) | 0.9 (0.9–1.0) | 0.9 (0.9–1.0) | 0.9 (0.9–1.0) | 1.00 |
Metabolic | |||||
 TC, mmol/l | 4.0 (3.2–4.8) | 4.2 (3.2–4.8) | 3.8 (3.3–4.9) | 3.8 (3.2–4.7) | 0.06 |
 HDLC, mmol/l | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | 0.46 |
 TGL, mmol/l | 1.4 (1.0–1.8) | 1.5 (1.1–2.1) | 1.4 (1.0–1.8) | 1.3 (0.9–1.7) | 0.08 |
 LDLC, mmol/l | 2.5 (2.0–3.3) | 2.6 (1.8–3.4) | 2.5 (2.0–3.4) | 2.5 (2.0–3.1) | 0.91 |
 Non-HDLC, mmol/l | 2.9 (2.3–3.7) | 3.1 (2.3–3.8) | 2.9 (2.3–3.7) | 2.9 (2.3–3.7) | 0.45 |
 TC/HDLC | 4.3 (3.4 -5.4) | 4.4 (3.4–5.7) | 4.3 (3.4–5.2) | 4.2 (3.3–5.3) | 0.56 |
 HbA1c, % | 11 (8–13) | 11 (9–13) | 11 (9–13) | 10 (7–13) | 0.10 |
 HbA1c, mmol/mol | 96 (67–115) | 99 (72–120) | 95 (70–113) | 86 (56–119) | 0.10 |
 Fasting serum insulin, µU/ml | 5.5 (2.8–9.4) | 5.7 (2.4–9.4) | 5.5 (2.9–9.5) | 5.3 (2.8–8.8) | 0.71 |
 Fasting serum C-peptide, ng/ml | 1.3 (0.7–1.9) | 1.2 (0.6–2.0) | 1.3 (0.8–1.8) | 1.3 (0.9–1.9) | 0.63 |
 Fasting blood glucose, mmol/l | 9.0 (6.5–13.6) | 10.4 (7.0–15.1) | 8.7 (6.6–12.9) | 8.6 (6.1–11.9) | 0.16 |
 HOMA2-IR | 1.2 (0.8–1.9) | 1.3 (0.9–1.8) | 1.1 (0.7–1.7) | 1.0 (0.7–2.5) | 0.22 |
 HOMA2-%B | 38 (18–67) | 34 (16–64) | 44 (24–67) | 38 (18–72) | 0.19 |
 Oral IGI, µU/ml/mmol | 1.1 (0.4–3.2) | 1.0 (0.4–2.4) | 1.2 (0.5–3.3) | 1.1 (0.4–5.0) | 0.82 |
Immunologic | |||||
 IL-1 β, pg/ml | 16 (14–20) | 16 (14–20) | 16 (14–20) | 15 (14–19) | 0.17 |
 IL-6, pg/ml | 26 (15–41) | 29 (16–45) | 23 (14–40) | 18 (14–32) | 0.01 |
 IL-8, pg/ml | 186 (76–577) | 242 (86–655) | 207 (81–853) | 98 (67–224) | 0.03 |
 TNF-α, pg/ml | 24 (19–33) | 25 (20–33) | 24 (20–33) | 22 (18–30) | 0.10 |