Table 1 Weighted baseline characteristics of study participants from the KNHANES (2008–2011)

Age (years)

Weight (kg)

65.40 ± 0.29

68.25 ± 0.40

68.97 ± 0.51

<0.001

Height (cm)

167.11 ± 0.18

167.46 ± 0.24

166.72 ± 0.29

0.53

BMI (kg/m2)

23.39 ± 0.09

24.29 ± 0.11

24.78 ± 0.16

<0.001

Fat mass (%) (n = 3298)

21.74 ± 0.15

23.03 ± 0.18

23.49 ± 0.25

<0.001

Low income (n = 3342) n, (%)

484 (11.87)

246 (5.83)

217 (5.53)

0.003

Physical activity n, (%)^a

 low

429 (25.90)

259 (23.59)

159 (24.23)

 moderate

663 (36.97)

417 (40.40)

272 (43.13)

 high

608 (37.12)

360 (36.01)

211 (32.64)

1700

1036

642

0.65

Smoking history n, (%)

 never

305 (18.11)

191 (16.41)

101 (14.28)

 past

817 (45.87)

525 (48.27)

327 (47.22)

 current

580 (36.02)

321 (35.33)

216 (38.50)

1702

1037

644

0.397

alcohol consumption (g/day)

13.42 ± 0.56

16.24 ± 0.77

15.23 ± 1.14

0.043

hypertension^a

848(44.13)

705(34.1)

446(21.7)

<0.001

fasting glucose (mg/dl)

90.99 ± 0.17

107.03 ± 0.27

141.38 ± 1.96

<0.001

fasting insulin (IU/mL)

(n = 2927)

8.74 ± 0.13

10.40 ± 0.19

10.83 ± 0.33

<0.001

HbA1c (n = 1001)

5.45 ± 0.02

5.91 ± 0.03

7.21 ± 0.07

<0.001

HOMA-IR (n = 2927)^a

1.95 ± 0.03

2.75 ± 0.05

3.74 ± 0.12

<0.001

HOMAbeta (n = 2927)^a

120.59 ± 1.89

86.18 ± 1.53

58.97 ± 6.70

<0.001

DM duration (years)

(n = 505)

8.43 ± 0.34

total cholesterol (mg/dl)

186.99 ± 1.09

192.80 ± 1.40

181.16 ± 2.00

0.168

HDL-C (mg/dl)

45.26 ± 0.36

45.72 ± 0.43

42.27 ± 0.49

<0.001

LDL-C (mg/dl)

111.77 ± 1.15

111.11 ± 1.46

99.98 ± 2.03

<0.001

Triglyceride (mg/dl)

149.80 ± 4.87

179.85 ± 5.37

194.53 ± 7.85

<0.001

serum vitamin D (ng/mL)

21.38 ± 0.29

21.17 ± 0.34

20.52 ± 0.41

0.062