Table 1 Patient characteristics by diabetes spending trajectory
BASELINE YEAR COVARIATES | Group 1: Minimal user (N = 4907) | Group 2: Low cost (N = 8.525) | Group 3: Rising cost (N = 2215) | Group 4: Moderate cost (N = 9594) | Group 5: High cost (N = 8548) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Demographics | |||||
 Age, mean (SD) | 76.3 (7.0) | 75.6 (6.6) | 75.9 (6.5) | 75.9 (6.6) | 75.9 (6.7) |
 Female sex, % | 52.7 | 51.5 | 51.4 | 57.4 | 61.4 |
 Race/ethnicity, % | |||||
  Non-Hispanic White | 85.6 | 85.4 | 83.8 | 82.4 | 78.3 |
  Black | 8.3 | 8.4 | 10.0 | 11.4 | 14.0 |
  Other | 2.8 | 3.3 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 2.5 |
  Asian/Pacific Islander | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 2.0 |
  Hispanic | 1.7 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 3.2 |
 Zip code median income, mean (SD) | $52,822 (22,467) | $52,258 (20,643) | $52,568 (19,731) | $51,361 (20,502) | $49,546 (20,657) |
 Zip code % high school grad, mean (SD) | 82.9 (17.3) | 83.4 (16.6) | 83.8 (14.8) | 82.6 (16.4) | 81.0 (16.8) |
Healthcare utilization | |||||
 Part D low income subsidy, % | 15.1 | 12.0 | 13.0 | 22.7 | 43.8 |
 No. of office visits, mean (SD) a | 8.5 (7.3) | 8.9 (6.8) | 10.0 (7.5) | 10.7 (7.9) | 12.1 (9.5) |
 No. of physicians, mean (SD) a | 2.1 (1.2) | 1.9 (1.0) | 2.0 (1.1) | 2.0 (1.1) | 2.3 (1.2) |
 No. of pharmacies used, mean (SD) a | 0.8 (1.2) | 0.7 (1.1) | 0.7 (1.1) | 1.2 (1.3) | 1.5 (1.2) |
 No. of hospitalizations, mean (SD) a | 0.7 (1.0) | 0.4 (0.7) | 0.4 (0.7) | 0.4 (0.7) | 0.5 (0.8) |
 No. of ER visits, mean (SD) a | 0.8 (1.5) | 0.6 (1.0) | 0.7 (1.1) | 0.7 (1.5) | 1.0 (1.5) |
 No. of unique drugs, mean (SD) a | 4.4 (6.5) | 4.0 (6.0) | 4.1 (6.4) | 7.5 (7.1) | 12.9 (8.1) |
 Prescription generosity, mean (SD) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.2) |
 Medical benefits’ generosity, mean (SD) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) |
 Total baseline year costs, mean (SD) | $20,835 (28.893) | $14,191 (17,350) | $16,085 (17,205) | $17,353 (17,885) | $24,557 (21,441) |
 Chronic medication use, % | 38.9 | 37.1 | 35.2 | 62.8 | 83.3 |
 Average adherence, mean (SD) a | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) |
Diabetes-specific | |||||
 No. of oral diabetes drugs, mean (SD) | 0.1 (0.4) | 0.3 (0.6) | 0.4 (0.8) | 1.0 (1.0) | 1.2 (1.1) |
 Diabetes average adherence, mean (SD) | 0.6 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.2) | 0.9 (0.2) | 0.9 (0.2) |
 Insulin use, % | 0.8 | 2.2 | 4.9 | 11.6 | 40.4 |
 Insulin persistence, % | 36.8 | 61.1 | 62.4 | 77.5 | 87.1 |
 Hypoglycemia, % | 1.4 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 2.9 | 5.5 |
 Ketoacidosis, % | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 2.0 |
 Retinopathy, % | 2.8 | 7.5 | 11.3 | 12.7 | 20.2 |
 Nephropathy, % | 0.6 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 2.2 | 3.6 |
 Neuropathy, % | 6.1 | 13.8 | 18.2 | 25.4 | 36.1 |
 No. of testing supply fills, mean (SD) | 0.1 (0.2) | 0.1 (0.4) | 0.1 (0.7) | 0.2 (0.9) | 0.7 (2.2) |
 Baseline year diabetes costs, mean (SD) | $5868 (7476) | $5644 (7313) | $6535 (7386) | $7147 (7437) | $9321 (8902) |
Comorbidities | |||||
 Comorbidity score, mean (SD) | 2.1 (3.0) | 1.7 (2.5) | 2.1 (2.6) | 2.3 (2.7) | 2.4 (2.7) |
 Coronary artery disease, % | 18.5 | 12.4 | 15.3 | 14.6 | 19.0 |
 Prior MI, % | 2.5 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.4 |
 Asthma or COPD, % | 28.8 | 23.7 | 25.3 | 26.3 | 33.7 |
 Hypertension, % | 91.2 | 92.6 | 93.1 | 94.5 | 96.4 |
 Renal failure or ESRD, % | 9.4 | 5.9 | 7.7 | 7.8 | 12.9 |
 Dementia, % | 5.5 | 2.9 | 4.1 | 3.7 | 7.0 |
 Depression, %a | 14.5 | 11.1 | 13.8 | 13.3 | 19.6 |
 Stroke, % | 3.1 | 1.8 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.5 |
 Liver disease, % | 1.0 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.0 |
 Congestive heart failure, % | 8.8 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 6.7 | 11.2 |
 Hyperlipidemia, % | 81.4 | 87.0 | 86.7 | 88.7 | 87.6 |
 Atrial fibrillation, % | 9.8 | 5.5 | 6.0 | 6.5 | 7.5 |
 Osteoporosis, % | 20.6 | 17.8 | 18.4 | 20.4 | 22.2 |
 Obesity, %a | 12.8 | 13.9 | 16.8 | 16.0 | 22.0 |
 Acute stress, % a | 6.5 | 3.7 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 6.6 |
 Tobacco use, % a | 18.5 | 14.5 | 15.4 | 15.0 | 15.4 |