Pre-diabetes and diabetes are independently associated with adverse cognitive test results: a cross-sectional, population-based study

Table 2 General linear models of adjusted mean cognitive test results of groups of participants with NGT, pre-diabetes and diabetes

	Model 1, n = 2994	Model 2, n = 2994
A. MMSE (points/100, normalized)
NGT	80.4 (79.7–81.1)	80.0 (79.3–80.8)
Pre-diabetes	78.5 (77.6–79.4)**	78.3 (77.4–79.2)**
Diabetes	78.4 (77.2–79.5)**	79.8 (78.3–81.2)
P for trend across categories	0.001	0.143
B. AQT (time in seconds)
NGT	130.8 (129.5–132.2)	131.8 (130.3–133.1)
Pre-diabetes	133.8 (132.0–135.5)*	134.0 (132.2–135.8)
Diabetes	136.0 (133.8–138.2)*	133.2 (130.5–135.9)
P for trend across categories	< 0.001	0.125
C. Memory (MMSE question 1 + 4, points/13)
NGT	12.1 (12.1–12.2)	12.1 (12.0–12.2)
Pre-diabetes	12.0 (11.9–12.1)*	12.0 (11.9–12.1)*
Diabetes	12.0 (11.9–12.1)*	12.0 (11.9–12.2)
P for trend across categories	0.009	0.104
D. Processing speed (AQT part 1–2, time in seconds)
NGT	60.6 (60.0–61.2)	61.0 (60.4–61.6)
Pre-diabetes	61.9 (61.2–62.7)*	62.1 (61.3–62.9)*
Diabetes	63.1 (62.1–64.1)***	61.6 (60.3–62.8)
P for trend across categories	< 0.001	0.129
E. Executive functioning (AQT part 3, time in seconds)
NGT	69.9 (69.1–70.7)	70.3 (69.5–71.2)
Pre-diabetes	71.4 (70.4–72.5)	71.5 (70.1–72.6)
Diabetes	72.5 (71.2–73.9)***	71.2 (69.5–72.9)
P for trend across categories	0.001	0.178

* p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 of difference in mean test results between NGT and each other category
Values are re-calculated from logarithmic values, apart from results of the MMSE, in which a normalization transformation method was used. All values are expressed as adjusted means (95% CI). For each cognitive outcome measurement, p-values for linear trends across categories are presented. Significant p-values for trend are highlighted in bold text
Model 1: Adjusted for age, sex, education, physical activity level, smoking habits and alcohol consumption
Model 2: Adjusted for factors in Model 1 and cardiovascular factors: Systolic blood pressure, heart rate, c-f PWV, waist circumference, total cholesterol levels and medications (anti-hypertensive, anti-diabetic and lipid-lowering treatment)

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